(1) The muscular walls of the pharynx constitute three overlapping sheets of striated muscle, the pharyngeal constrictors.(2) From the lips back to the larynx, the IPA names 11 places of articulation: bilabial labiodental dental alveolar postalveolar retroflex palatal velar uvular pharyngeal glottal(3) Modern phoneticians would more precisely categorize such consonants into velar, uvular, pharyngeal , and glottal articulations.(4) Combined stimulation of the hypoglossus branch and pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve produced significant interactions between pressure and stimulation in the caudal oropharynx.(5) The levator veli palatini muscle, which elevates the soft palate, is innervated by a pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve.(6) Its fibers pass dorsally from an extensive anterior attachment to insert on the pharyngeal raphe, the pharyngeal tubercle of the occipital bone.(7) The hypoglossal and glossopharyngeal nerves innervate pharyngeal dilator muscles.(8) We also find that the pharyngeals involve an even longer articulatory sequence than glottalized consonants.(9) It has a series of ejectives, voiced stops that are truly voiced even in word-initial position, phonemic glottal stop, and several fricatives absent from English, including a pair of pharyngeals .(10) Cuneiform was in many ways unsuited to Akkadian: among its flaws was its inability to represent important phonemes in Semitic, including a glottal stop, pharyngeals , and emphatic consonants.
